室内世锦赛收官 中国田径队积分创新高
| ???? ???????? | |
|---|---|
| |
| Reconstructed skeleton of Tautavel Man[2] | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | ?????? |
| Phylum: | ???????? |
| Class: | ????????? |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Hominidae |
| Subfamily: | Homininae |
| Tribe: | Hominini |
| Genus: | Homo |
| Species: | H. Erecturs
|
| Binomial name | |
| Homo Erecturs (Dubois, 1893)
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
???? ???????? (???? '???????? ???? ?????') ????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????. ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? 18 ????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? 1991 ?? ???????????? ????????? ???????????.[5]
???? ???????? ????????, ??????????, ??????? ?????????? ????, ???????? ???? ????????????? ?????? ???????, ???? ????????????. ? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????????????:
1) ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????.[6] ??????? ???? ? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????? [7][8][9];
????
2) ??????????? ??? ???????? ???? ??????????? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ??????.[8] ? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????.[10][11][12]
???????? ??????????????????????? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? "???????" ????? ??????????. ????? ?????? "???? ???????? ?????? ??????????" (????????? ???????) (???? ???????? ???.???) ???, ??????? ?????? "???? ???????? ?????? ????" (??????????????) (???? ???????? ???.???) ??? ??????????.[13][14]
???? ???????? ??????? ???????, ?????, ????????? ???????????????. ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????, ???????? ???? ????????????????????, ??????????????. ?? ????????????????? ??? ????????????? ???? ????????????? ????. 1950 ?? ? ?????? ?????????????????, ???? ????????? ? ?????? ???? ????????????? (?????? ??????????? ???? ?????? - ?????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ??????? ????? ???????????) ????????????. ? ???? ??????? ????????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????????. ?????? ?????, ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????????? ????. ????? ????, ???? ?????????? ????? ?????????, ???? ???? ??????????????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????????????? (????? ????????????) ???? ???????? (????????? ?????? ???? ?????????????? ??? ???? ??????????) ?????? ??????????.[15] ? ?????????????? 3,00,000 ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????????????????? ???????????. 70,000 ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ??????????.[1]
2013 ?? ?????????????? ?????????? " ??????? ?????? 5 " ??????????, ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????????.[16] ??????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????. ???? ???????????????, ???? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????. [17][18]
???????
[??????]????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????, ???? ???????????? ???????????? 1886 ?? ????? (???? ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????????) ??????????. 1891-92?? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? (??????? ??????????) ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????, ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????. ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? (1893) ? ?????????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ?? ????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? (1868 ?? ????????? ?????? ??????? ????, ????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???? ????????) ??? ????? ?????? (???????? ???? ???????? "????"), (?????????? ???? "????") ????????. ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ? ???? ????????.
???????? ????? 1891 ?? ???????? ? ??????, ???????????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????????? (???????? ???? ? ????????? ?????????? ???) ?????? ??????. 1856 ?? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????????. ???????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????; ? ?????? ????????, ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????, "?????????? ?????" ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????.[19]
???? ???????? ????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ???????. ???????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ????????. ? ????????? ????????? 1921 ?? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????????.[20] 1921 ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????????.[21] ????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ????? (1921) (?????? ??? ???????????? ???????????? ??? ???? ????????)?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????????.[22] ??? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????????? ????????? ?????? 40 ?????? ???? ???????? ????? 200 ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????????.[23] ??????????????? ?????? (?????? ??) ???????? ????????????? ???? ????????????? ??????? ??????????? ? ????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????.
????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????; ??? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????, ??????????? ????????????? ??? ???????????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ????????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ???????????????.
???? ??????, ??????? ?????? ???? ?????????? 1950 ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ???????????.
20 ? ????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????. ??????? ?????????? ????, ???????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????????. ???????? ??????? ??????????????-?????? ????????? ???????? ????????-?????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?????????????????: ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????, ?????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????.[24]
?????
[??????]
????????????????? ????? 3 ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ????????. 2 ???????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????????, ???? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ????.[25] 2 ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? (???????????) ????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ?????????????????.[26]
?????? 2 ???????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????????????. ???????, ?????? ??????? 1.8 ???????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????????????. ??????? ???? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ????? ?????????? ????. ????????? ????????? ??????? (2011) ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????. ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????, ?????? ????? (??????? ??????) ??????????? (???? ??????), ??????? (???? ???????????), ????? (??????? ??????) ?? ????????????.[27][28]
???????
[??????]
1950 ? ?????? ????????? ?????????????? ???? ??. ?????????, ??????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ????????;[29] ????????? 1949 ?? ????????????????? ???????????????? ??? ???????? ???????????. ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????????, ????????? ????????????.[30]
1950 ? ????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ???? ????????? ???? ???????????, ???? ?????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????. ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????????; ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ????. ???? ?????????????? ??? ????? ???????????. ???? ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? -?????? ?????. ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????? (???? ???????? ?????? ????) ?? ????????? ??????????.[31]
1961 ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????????. ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????? ????????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????????.[32] ???????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????????????????,[33] ??. ????????? ???? ????????????? ????????????. ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????.[32][34] ?????? " ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ????????????? ??? ????????????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????????????" ??? ??????????????.[35] 1973 ???? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????, ????????????, ?? 14 ??????? ??????? ??? ????? 10,000 ????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????????????. [36]
????????
[??????]???????
[??????]
???????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????, ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????????. ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????????????. ??????? ??? ???? ??????????? ????????????????.[37][38][39] ? ??????????? 1991 ?? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???????????. 2005 ????? "??????" ???????? ??? 1991 ????? ??? ???????? ?????????????. ??????? ???? ??????????? ???????????, ????? ????? 73 ???? ?????????, ???????????? ???????????? 34 ???? ?????? ????????.[40]
???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ??????????? ??????????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????????, ????? ???? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????. ??????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ????? ????. ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????????????.[41][42][43][44] ????? ???????????? ???? ??????, ???? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??????. ???? ????????? ?????? ?????????, ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??????????.[45] ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ????????????. ???? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ??????????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????????; ??? 1.8 ?? ???? ??????.[38][46] ? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ????? (D2600), ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????(??211) ?????? ?????? ??-????? (??2735), ?????? ???? ????? ??3444 / ??3900 ???????.[47]
????? ???????? - ?? 2700 ????? ??????? 600 ???????? ???????????? (37 ???????? ??????), ??4500 ???? ?????? ?????? 5, ????? ??????? ?????? 546 ????????????-???????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????, ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????????.[17] ? ??????????? ???????????? ?????? ????????, ????????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????????. ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????, ??????????? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????????. ???? ???????????????, ???? ??????????????, ???? ?????????, ???? ????????????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ??????????? (???? ???????? ???) ????? ?????? ???????????????? ? ????????? ??????????????.[48]
??????, ?????? ?????
[??????]???? ???????? ??????, ????????????? ?????? 0.7 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????. ??? 1 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????????; 2018 ?? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???? ????????? 2 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????????????.[49][50]
????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????. ??? 1.4 - 0.9 ???? ???? ??????. ??? ???????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????. ? ??? ??????? ??????? "??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????????? ????????.[15] ??????????? ??? ???????? ? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????????.[51]
1891/2 ?? ???? ???????? ?????????? ???? ?????? (???? ?. ?????????, ???? ???????? ???? ?????), 1.0–0.7 ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????. ???????? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ??????? 1963 ?? ?????????? ???????? ?????? (???? ?. ?????????????) ???? ????????? ????????????.
??????? ?????? (???? ?. ????????????) ??, 1923-27?? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????? (?? ??-?????) ???? ???????????. ??? ?????? 7.5 ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????.[52] ????? 26Al / 10Be ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? 6,80,000–7,80,000 ????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????.[53][54] 1965 ?? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? (???? ?. ????????????????), ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? (???? ?????? 1.7 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????????).[55]
1993 ?? ????????? ????????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? (???? ?. ??????????????) ????????????. ??? ?????? 0.6 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????.[56][57]
???? ??? ???????? 1931/1933 ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? (???? ?. ????????????) ???????? ?????? 0.25 - 0.075 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? (??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? (???????? ????? ???? ?????????) ???????????).[58]
?????
[??????]????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ???? ??????????????????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ????. ???? ??????????????????? ???????? 600 ??(????? ???? ????????) ?? ????? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ???????? "??????? ??????" (???? ???????? ??????????????), ??. 450 ??, ????????? ?????? ("??????????"), ??. 430 ?? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????. ??????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??. 1.2 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????. ??? "???? ??? ?????? ??????" ?????? ?????? 0.9 ?? ???????? ??????????????. ??? ???? ???????????? ????????????????. ?????????? ????????????? ????????????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????? " ???? ?. ????????????????? " ?? ????????????????.
??????????? 2008 ?? ??????????? ?????????-??-?????? ?????????? 1.6 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????.[59] ??????? ???? ????????, ????-?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????????????. ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????????????. ???????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????????.[60][61]
?????????
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?????????????????????? ???? ?????????, ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ???? ?????????????????. ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????.[64] ???? ????????? ????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????????. ???? ??????????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???????.[???? ?????] ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????.
?? ????????? ??????????????? " ????????? ????? " ??? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????-???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????????????. ??????????????? ???? ?????????, ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ???????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ??????? (????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????) ??? ?????????? ??????????. ????: ????????? ??????? ???? ?????????, ???? ?????????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????: ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????????, ???? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????.
??????? ??????? ????????, ???????? ?????? (????, ????) ??????? ???????? ???? ??????; ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????. (????????, ???? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????,[65] ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????????. ???????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????????????? ??????????????? (???? ?????? ??????). ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ???????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????????????.) 2009 ?? ???????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????????. ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????? ????????, ???? ?????? ???????????, ???? ???????? ???? " ??? ????? ???????? " ????? ??? ??????????????. ???? ???? ????? ????????? ????????????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????????.[66]
???? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ????????????? ??????? ???????? (??????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????????): ???? ???????? 850 ???.??.? ???? ????????????? ????????. ?????? ?????? ??????? 1100 ???.??.[65] ???? ????????? .; ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. ??? ??????? ??????????????????? ???? ???????; ??????????????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ?????? ????????????? (?????? ????????????), ????? ??????-???????, ?????? ?????? ???????? (???? ??????). ??????? ?????????? ?????? 1.79 ?? (5 ??????? 10 ????????)[67]— ?????? ????????? ????? 17% ??????? ????.[68]— ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????, ??????? ???????.[69]
?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? - ????? ???? ???????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????????. ???? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ????. ????? ????????, ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ????????????.[70] ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????, ??? ???????? ? ????? ???????? ???????. ??????? ?????????? ????? (????????????????? ??????) ????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????????. ????? ?????????? ?????, ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????????. ? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????????.[70] ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???????????? ????? ????. ????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????????.[70]
???? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????????-?????? ?????? ???? 25% ??????? ??????. ???? ?????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ???? ?????????? ??????????????? ???? ???? ??????. ???? ???????????????? ??????????? ????????? 1984 ?? ??????? ????, ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? "??????? ????" (???? ???????????) ?????????? ????????????-??? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ????????????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ??????????.
?????????? (2003, 2012), ????, (2004) ?????? ???? ???????? (???? ???????????) ??? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????-???????? ????? ??????. ???????? ????????? ??????. ???? ????????? ?? ????????? ????, ????????? (???? ???????) ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????????. ??? ??????? ????? ????????, ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??????.[62][63]
?????????? (???? ??????-????? ??????) ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????, ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????. ???? ???????, ???????? ????? ?????? 2 ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????. ??????? ???? ??????????????????? (???? ??????????????)?? ??????? ????????. ?????? ??? ???? ??????????? ??????? ????????. ???? ????? ???? ????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ???????????; ??? ???????????, ???? ?????????? ???????????, ???? ???????????, ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ???????, ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????.
????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ??????????????????? ??????????????. ????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ??????????: ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ?????????, ???? ??????????????????? (???? ??????????????) ???????????, ????????????, ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ???? ???????????? ???????????. ??????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????.[71]
????? ???????
[??????]There has been evidence of H. erectus inhabiting a cave in Zhoukoudian, China.[72] This evidence consisted of remains, stones, charred animal bones, collections of seeds, and possibly ancient hearths and charcoal.[72] Although this does not prove that H. erectus lived in caves, it does show that H. erectus spent periods of time in caves of Zhoukoudian. Remains of H. erectus have more consistently been found in lake beds and in stream sediments.[72] This suggest that H. erectus also lived in open encampments near streams and lakes.
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[??????]
??????????? ???????????? ???? (??? ???? ????) ???? ?????? 2.6 ????????? - 10,000 ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????;[74] ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ???????. ??? 2.58 ???????? ????? 11,700 ????????? ??????.[75] ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????????, ???? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????. ???? ???????? ???????????????? ????????????? ???????, ?????? ???? ????????? ????? ???? ???????????.[???? ?????]
???????????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????????. ?????? ????? ???? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????. ?????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????.[76] ?????????? ?????? ????? ca. 1.8 ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????.[77] ???? ???????? ??????? 200,000 ????????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ????????????? ???????????. ????????????? ??? ????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ????????????.[78] ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? 1.2 ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????????-?????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????.[79]
????? ??????
[??????]?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????????, ???? ????, ?????????? ???????????, ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????????. ????????? ???? ????????? ?????????????? 1.42 M.Y.A ???? ???????-????????? ???????? ?????? ???????????.[80] ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????????? 400 ° ??? (752 ° ??) ?? ???? ??????. ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ??????????? 1.5 M.Y.A. ???? ??????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????????. ???????? ???????????? ??????????? 200-400 ??????? ????????? (392-752 ??????? ???????????) ?? ???? ????? ?????.[80] ?????????? ??????????????? ?? ??????? ???? "?????? ????? ??????" ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????. ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????????????.[80]
????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????????. ???? ?????????-?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????; ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????.[80] ?????? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????????. ??? 200 ° ??? (392 ° ??) ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????????. ? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????. ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????.[80] ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????. ???? ?????? ????????? (??????????) ???????? ??? ???? ? ????????? ????????????.
?????????????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? 7,90,000 - 690,000 ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????????????? ????????;[81] ?????? ???? ? ?????? ?????????? ??????????. ???? ???????? 2,50,000 ????????? ????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????????. ???? ???????? 5,00,000 ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ???? ???????.[82] ????????????????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??????, ?????? ????? ???????????? 1 M.Y.A ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????.[83]
???? ???????? ???? ????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ???????.[82]
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???????? ?????? ??????, ?????????? ???????????? ????? ?????????.[86] 1891 ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????????.[86][87][88] ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? 0.5460 ± .10 ???????? ??????????, ?????? ?????? 0.4360 ± .05 ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????. ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????????. ??? ?????? ???????? ???????.[86][89][90] ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????????.[86]
???? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????. [91] ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????; ??? ???????????? ???? ???????, ???? ?????, ???? ?????????????????? (?????????) ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ? ?????? ???? ??? ???????.[???? ?????]
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1984 ?? ??????? ?????? ?????????? (???? ??????????) ?????????? ???? ????????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????????, ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????????? ????? ???????????. ?????? ???? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????-??? ?????????? ???? ??????????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ????? ???????.[92] ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????????? (?????????) ???????????? (???????? ?????? ???? ?????? 1,50,000 ????????? ??????????)????? ????????? ? ????????????? ????? ?????????.[45] ????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???????????? ??????????????.[93]
?????? ???-????? ?????? ??????-?????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??????-???????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????????.[94] ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????????. ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????????????. ?????? ??????, ????????, ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????. ??????????? ???? ?????, ????????? ???? ?????????? ??? ????????????? ?????? ????????, ?????, ?????? ????????????????? ????? ????.[???? ?????]
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- ???? ???????? ????????? (1.8–1.6 ??)
- ???? ???????? ????????????? (0.7–0.3 Ma), now mostly treated as a derived species, H. heidelbergensis.[95]
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- ???? ???????? ??????????? (???? ????), 0.25–0.075 Ma)[96]
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- ???? ???????? ??????????????? (???????? ????)" ????? ???? " ???? ???????? ?????????? " ?? ?????????????????????? ????????? ??????????????????? " ???? ???????? " ??????? ??????????????.[97]
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- ???? ???????????????? [98]
- ???? ??????? ???????????.
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- Homo denisova (???? ???. ???????? ??? ???? ???.??. " ????? ", ???? ????????, ????????. ???????)
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- 1982 ?? ????????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????,(????????) ??????? ???? ??????????? (???? ???????? ????????????) ???????, ?????? " ???? ???????????? ???????????.[99]
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[??????]???????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ???????????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ????.[100] 45 ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????. ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????????.[100] 1951 ?? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? '??????? ???? ????' ????? 4 ???? ?????? ????? ????????? 2 ? ?????? ???????? ? ???????? ???? ???? ??????.[100]
????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????????.[101] ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????.[101]
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[??????]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Homo erectus soloensis, found in Java, is considered the latest known survival of H. erectus. Formerly dated to as late as 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, a 2011 study pushed back the date of its extinction of H. e. soloensis to 75,000 years ago at the latest. Indriati E, Swisher CC III, Lepre C, Quinn RL, Suriyanto RA, et al. 2011 The Age of the 20 Meter Solo River Terrace, Java, Indonesia and the Survival of Homo erectus in Asia.PLoS ONE 6(6): e21562. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021562.
- ↑ based on numerous fossil remains of H. erectus. Museum of Prehistory Tautavel, France (2008 photograph)
- ↑ Reconstruction by John Gurche (2010), Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, based on KNM ER 3733 and 992. Abigail Tucker, "A Closer Look at Evolutionary Faces Archived 2025-08-08 at the Wayback Machine", Smithsonian.com, 25 February 2010.
- ↑ Reconstruction by W. Schnaubelt & N. Kieser (Atelier Wild Life Art), 2006, Westf?lisches Museum für Arch?ologie, Herne, Germany.
- ↑ Haviland, William A.; Walrath, Dana; Prins, Harald E.L.; McBride, Bunny (2007). Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-495-38190-7.
- ↑ Baab K (???????? 2015). "Defining Homo erectus". Handbook of Paleoanthropology (2 ed.): 2189–2219. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39979-4_65 (inactive 4 ???????? 2019).
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of 2019 (link) - ↑ G. Philip Rightmire (1998). "Human Evolution in the Middle Pleistocene: The Role of Homo heidelbergensis". Evolutionary Anthropology. 6 (6): 218–227. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(1998)6:6<218::aid-evan4>3.0.co;2-6.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Klein, R. (1999). The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226439631.
- ↑ Asfaw B, Gilbert WH, Beyene Y, Hart WK, Renne PR, WoldeGabriel G, Vrba ES, White TD (???? 2002). "Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature. 416 (6878): 317–320. doi:10.1038/416317a. PMID 11907576.
- ↑ Wilford, John. "Bones in China Put New Light on Old Humans". New York Times.
- ↑ Wood, Bernard. "Did early Homo migrate "out of" or "in to" Africa?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 25 ??????? 2020. Retrieved 5 ???????? 2019.
- ↑ Yadav, Archana (21 ???? 2016). "It is perfectly possible that Homo genus evolved in Asia".
- ↑ Antón, S.C. (2003). "Natural history of Homo erectus". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 122: 126–170. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10399. PMID 14666536.
By the 1980s, the growing numbers of H. erectus specimens, particularly in Africa, led to the realization that Asian H. erectus (H. erectus sensu stricto), once thought so primitive, was in fact more derived than its African counterparts. These morphological differences were interpreted by some as evidence that more than one species might be included in H. erectus sensu lato (e.g., Stringer, 1984; Andrews, 1984; Tattersall, 1986; Wood, 1984, 1991a, b; Schwartz and Tattersall, 2000) ... Unlike the European lineage, in my opinion, the taxonomic issues surrounding Asian vs. African H. erectus are more intractable. The issue was most pointedly addressed with the naming of H. ergaster on the basis of the type mandible KNM-ER 992, but also including the partial skeleton and isolated teeth of KNM-ER 803 among other Koobi Fora remains (Groves and Mazak, 1975). Recently, this specific name was applied to most early African and Georgian H. erectus in recognition of the less-derived nature of these remains vis à vis conditions in Asian H. erectus (see Wood, 1991a, p. 268; Gabunia et al., 2000a). At least portions of the paratype of H. ergaster (e.g., KNM-ER 1805) are not included in most current conceptions of that taxon. The H. ergaster question remains famously unresolved (e.g., Stringer, 1984; Tattersall, 1986; Wood, 1991a, 1994; Rightmire, 1998b; Gabunia et al., 2000a; Schwartz and Tattersall, 2000), in no small part because the original diagnosis provided no comparison with the Asian fossil record
- ↑ Suwa G, Asfaw B, Haile-Selassie Y, White T, Katoh S, WoldeGabriel G, Hart W, Nakaya H, Beyene Y (2007). "Early Pleistocene Homo erectus fossils from Konso, southern Ethiopia". Anthropological Science. 115 (2): 133–151. doi:10.1537/ase.061203.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kaifu, Y., et al. (2005). "Taxonomic affinities and evolutionary history of the Early Pleistocene hominids of Java: dentognathic evidence". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 128: 709–726.
- ↑ Skull suggests three early human species were one : Nature News & Comment
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 David Lordkipanidze; Marcia S. Ponce de Leòn; Ann Margvelashvili; Yoel Rak; G. Philip Rightmire; Abesalom Vekua; Christoph P.E. Zollikofer (18 ???????? 2013). "A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early Homo". Science. 342 (6156): 326–331. Bibcode:2013Sci...342..326L. doi:10.1126/science.1238484. PMID 24136960.
- ↑ Switek, Brian (17 ???????? 2013). "Beautiful Skull Spurs Debate on Human History". National Geographic. Retrieved 22 ?????????? 2014.
- ↑ Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2000, p. 70.
- ↑ "The First Knock at the Door". Peking Man Site Museum.
In the summer of 1921, Dr. J.G. Andersson and his companions discovered this richly fossiliferous deposit through the local quarry men's guide. During examination he was surprised to notice some fragments of white quartz in tabus, a mineral normally foreign in that locality. The significance of this occurrence immediately suggested itself to him and turning to his companions, he exclaimed dramatically "Here is primitive man, now all we have to do is find him!"
- ↑ "The First Knock at the Door". Peking Man Site Museum.
For some weeks in this summer and a longer period in 1923 Dr. Otto Zdansky carried on excavations of this cave site. He accumulated an extensive collection of fossil material, including two Homo erectus teeth that were recognized in 1926. So, the cave home of Peking Man was opened to the world.
- ↑ from sino-, a combining form of the Greek Σ?να "China", and the Latinate pekinensis, "of Peking"
- ↑ "Review of the History". Peking Man Site Museum.
During 1927–1937, abundant human and animal fossils as well as artefact were found at Peking Man Site, it made the site to be the most productive one of the Homo erectus sites of the same age all over the world. Other localities in the vicinity were also excavated almost at the same time.
- ↑ Darwin, Charles R. (1871). The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-8014-2085-6.
{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) - ↑ "Oldest known member of human family found in Ethiopia". New Scientist. 4 ?????? 2015. Retrieved 7 ?????? 2015.
- ↑ F. Spoor; M.G. Leakey; P.N. Gathogo; F.H. Brown; S.C. Antón; I. McDougall; C. Kiarie; F.K. Manthi; L.N. Leakey (9 ?????? 2007). "Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 448 (7154): 688–691. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..688S. doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID 17687323. "A partial maxilla assigned to H. habilis reliably demonstrates that this species survived until later than previously recognized, making an anagenetic relationship with H. erectus unlikely. [...] these two early taxa were living broadly sympatrically in the same lake basin for almost half a million years."
- ↑ Ferring, R.; Oms, O.; Agusti, J.; Berna, F.; Nioradze, M.; Shelia, T.; Tappen, M.; Vekua, A.; Zhvania, D.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2011). "Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85-1.78 Ma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26): 10432–10436. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810432F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106638108. PMC 3127884. PMID 21646521.
- ↑ Augusti, Jordi; Lordkipanidze, David (???? 2011). "How "African" was the early human dispersal out of Africa?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (11–12): 1338–1342. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.1338A. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.012.
- ↑ Robinson JT (????? 1953). "The nature of Telanthropus capensis". Nature. 171 (4340): 33. Bibcode:1953Natur.171...33R. doi:10.1038/171033a0. PMID 13025468.
- ↑ Frederick E. Grine; John G. Fleagle; Richard E. Leakey (1 ???? 2009). "Chapter 2: Homo habilis – A Premature Discovery: Remember by One of Its Founding Fathers, 42 Years Later". The First Humans: Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo. Springer. p. 7.
- ↑ F. Spoor; M.G. Leakey; P.N. Gathogo; F.H. Brown; S.C. Antón; I. McDougall; C. Kiarie; F.K. Manthi; L.N. Leakey (9 ?????? 2007). "Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 448 (7154): 688–691. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..688S. doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID 17687323. "A partial maxilla assigned to H. habilis reliably demonstrates that this species survived until later than previously recognized, making an anagenetic relationship with H. erectus unlikely"
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Kalb, Jon E (2001). Adventures in the Bone Trade: The Race to Discover Human Ancestors in Ethiopia's Afar Depression. Springer. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-387-98742-2. Retrieved 2 ???????? 2010.
- ↑ Cornevin, Robert (1967). Histoire de l'Afrique. Payotte. p. 440. ISBN 978-2-228-11470-7.
- ↑ "Mikko's Phylogeny Archive". Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki. Archived from the original on 6 ????? 2007.
- ↑ Wood, Bernard (11 ???? 2002). "Palaeoanthropology: Hominid revelations from Chad" (PDF). Nature. 418 (6894): 133–135. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..133W. doi:10.1038/418133a. PMID 12110870. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 ???? 2011. Retrieved 2 ???????? 2010.
- ↑ Servant 1983, pp. 462–464.
- ↑ Vekua A, Lordkipanidze D, Rightmire GP, Agusti J, Ferring R, Maisuradze G, Mouskhelishvili A, Nioradze M, De Leon MP, Tappen M, Tvalchrelidze M, Zollikofer C (2002). "A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia". Science. 297 (5578): 85–89. Bibcode:2002Sci...297...85V. doi:10.1126/science.1072953. PMID 12098694.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Lordkipanidze D, Jashashvili T, Vekua A, Ponce de León MS, Zollikofer CP, Rightmire GP, Pontzer H, Ferring R, Oms O, Tappen M, Bukhsianidze M, Agusti J, Kahlke R, Kiladze G, Martinez-Navarro B, Mouskhelishvili A, Nioradze M, Rook L (2007). "Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia" (PDF). Nature. 449 (7160): 305–310. Bibcode:2007Natur.449..305L. doi:10.1038/nature06134. PMID 17882214.
- ↑ Lordkipanidze, D.; Vekua, A.; Ferring, R.; Rightmire, G.P.; Agusti, J.; Kiladze, G.; Mouskhelishvili, A.; Nioradze, M.; Ponce De León, M.S.P.; Tappen, M.; Zollikofer, C.P.E. (2005). "Anthropology: The earliest toothless hominin skull". Nature. 434 (7034): 717–718. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..717L. doi:10.1038/434717b. PMID 15815618.
- ↑ Ferring, R.; Oms, O.; Agusti, J.; Berna, F.; Nioradze, M.; Shelia, T.; Tappen, M.; Vekua, A.; Zhvania, D.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2011). "Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26): 10432–10436. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810432F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106638108. PMC 3127884. PMID 21646521.
- ↑ Gibbons, A. (2003). "A Shrunken Head for African Homo erectus" (PDF). Science. 300 (5621): 893a–893. doi:10.1126/science.300.5621.893a. PMID 12738831.
- ↑ Tattersall, I.; Schwartz, J.H. (2009). "Evolution of the GenusHomo". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 37 (1): 67–92. Bibcode:2009AREPS..37...67T. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100202.
- ↑ Rightmire, G.P.; Lordkipanidze, D.; Vekua, A. (2006). "Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia". Journal of Human Evolution. 50 (2): 115–141. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.07.009. PMID 16271745.
- ↑ Gabunia, L.; Vekua, A.; Lordkipanidze, D.; Swisher Cc, 3.; Ferring, R.; Justus, A.; Nioradze, M.; Tvalchrelidze, M.; Antón, S.C.; Bosinski, G.; J?ris, O.; Lumley, M.A.; Majsuradze, G.; Mouskhelishvili, A. (2000). "Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: Taxonomy, geological setting, and age". Science. 288 (5468): 1019–1025. Bibcode:2000Sci...288.1019G. doi:10.1126/science.288.5468.1019. PMID 10807567.
{{cite journal}}:|first4=has numeric name (help) - ↑ 45.0 45.1 Bower, Bruce (3 ?? 2006). "Evolutionary back story: Thoroughly modern spine supported human ancestor". Science News. 169 (18): 275–276. doi:10.2307/4019325. JSTOR 4019325.
- ↑ Wilford, John Noble (19 ?????????? 2007). "New Fossils Offer Glimpse of Human Ancestors". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 ?????????? 2009.
- ↑ Rightmire, G. Philip; Van Arsdale, Adam P.; Lordkipanidze, David (2008). "Variation in the mandibles from Dmanisi, Georgia". Journal of Human Evolution. 54 (6): 904–908. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.02.003. PMID 18394678.
- ↑ Ian Sample (17 ???????? 2013). "Skull of Homo erectus throws story of human evolution into disarray". The Guardian.
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- ↑ Barras, Colin (2018). "Tools from China are oldest hint of human lineage outside Africa". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05696-8. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Krantz, G.S. (1975). "An explanation for the diastema of Javan erectus Skull IV". In: Paleoanthropology, Morphology and Paleoecology. La Hague: Mouton, 361–372.
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- ↑ Shen, G; Gao, X; Gao, B; Granger, De (?????? 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature. 458 (7235): 198–200. Bibcode:2009Natur.458..198S. doi:10.1038/nature07741. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19279636.
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- ↑ Qian F, Li Q, Wu P, Yuan S, Xing R, Chen H, and Zhang H (1991). Lower Pleistocene, Yuanmou Formation: Quaternary Geology and Paleoanthropology of Yuanmou Archived 2025-08-08 at the Wayback Machine, Yunnan, China. Beijing: Science Press, pp. 17–50
- ↑ W. Rukang; L. Xingxue (2003). "Homo erectus from Nanjing" (PDF). PaleoAnthropology.
- ↑ J. Zhao; K. Hu; K.D. Collerson; H. Xu (2001). "Thermal ionisation mass spectrometry U-series dating of a hominid site near Nanjing, China" (PDF). Geology. 29: 27. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0027:TIMSUS>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original on 8 ?????????? 2017.
- ↑ "Finding showing human ancestor older than previously thought offers new insights into evolution". Terra Daily. 5 ???? 2011. Retrieved 22 ??????? 2019.
- ↑ Jones, Tim (17 ???????? 2009). "Lithic Assemblage Dated to 1.57 Million Years Found at Lézignan-la-Cébe, Southern France ?". Anthropology.net. Archived from the original on 24 ?????????? 2015. Retrieved 21 ???? 2012.
- ↑ Moore, Matthew (8 ???? 2010). "Norfolk earliest known settlement in northern Europe". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 26 ?????? 2014. Retrieved 8 ???? 2010.
- ↑ Ghosh, Pallab (7 ???? 2010). "Humans' early arrival in Britain". BBC. Retrieved 8 ???? 2010.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Stringer, C. (2012). "What makes a modern human". Nature. 485 (7396): 33–35. Bibcode:2012Natur.485...33S. doi:10.1038/485033a. PMID 22552077.
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Figure 5. Temporal and Geographical Distribution of Hominid Populations Redrawn from Stringer (2003)" (edited from source), in Reed, David L.; Smith, Vincent S.; Hammond, Shaless L.; et al. (?????? 2004). "Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans". PLOS Biology. 2 (11): e340. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 521174. PMID 15502871.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ Tattersall, Ian and Jeffrey Schwartz (2001). Extinct Humans. Boulder, Colorado: Westview/Perseus. ISBN 978-0-8133-3482-0.
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Swisher, Carl Celso III; Curtis, Garniss H. and Lewin, Roger (2002) Java Man, Abacus, ISBN 0-349-11473-0.
- ↑ "A footprint in the sands of time". The Economist. 26 ???????? 2009. Retrieved 22 ???????? 2017.
- ↑ Bryson, Bill (2005). A Short History of Nearly Everything: Special Illustrated Edition. Toronto: Doubleday Canada. ISBN 978-0-385-66198-0.
- ↑ Khanna, Dev Raj (2004). Human Evolution. Discovery Publishing House. p. 195. ISBN 978-8171417759. Retrieved 30 ?????? 2013.
African H. erectus, with a mean stature of 170 cm, would be in the tallest 17 percent of modern populations, even if we make comparisons only with males
- ↑ Roylance, Frank D. Roylance (6 ???????? 1994). "A Kid Tall For His Age". Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on 5 ?????? 2013. Retrieved 30 ?????? 2013.
Clearly this population of early people were tall, and fit. Their long bones were very strong. We believe their activity level was much higher than we can imagine today. We can hardly find Olympic athletes with the stature of these people
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 Roach, & Richmond. (2015). "Clavicle length, throwing performance and the reconstruction of the Homo erectus shoulder". Journal of Human Evolution, 80(C), 107–113.
- ↑ Whitfield, John (18 ???????? 2008). "Lovers not fighters". Scientific American. 298 (3): 20–21. Bibcode:2008SciAm.298c..20W. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0308-20.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 ??????? ????: ???????
<ref>??????;:0??? ?????? ref ??? ????????? ???????? - ↑ Richards, M. P. (???????? 2002). "A brief review of the archaeological evidence for Palaeolithic and Neolithic subsistence". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in ????????). 56 (12): 1270–1278. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601646. ISSN 1476-5640.
- ↑ Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (2007). Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (2007). Handbook of Paleoanthropology. pp. 1943–1963. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-33761-4_64. ISBN 978-3-540-32474-4.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) In Henke, H.C. Winfried; Hardt, Thorolf; Tatersall, Ian. Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Volume 3. Berlin; Heidelberg; New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 1944. (Print: ISBN 978-3-540-32474-4 Online: ISBN 978-3-540-33761-4) - ↑ "The Pleistocene Epoch". University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from the original on 24 ?????? 2014. Retrieved 22 ?????? 2014.
- ↑ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
- ↑ The Earth Institute. (2025-08-08). Humans Shaped Stone Axes 1.8 Million Years Ago, Study Says. Columbia University. Accessed 5 January 2012.
- ↑ Gibbons, Ann (13 ?????? 1998). "Paleoanthropology: Ancient Island Tools Suggest Homo erectus Was a Seafarer". Science. 279 (5357): 1635–1637. doi:10.1126/science.279.5357.1635.
- ↑ Oldest stone tool ever found in Turkey discovered by the University of Royal Holloway London and published in ScienceDaily on December 23, 2014
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 James, Steven R. (???????? 1989). "Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 30 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1086/203705. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 ???????? 2015. Retrieved 4 ??????? 2012.
- ↑ Rincon, Paul (29 ??????? 2004). "Early human fire skills revealed". BBC News. Retrieved 12 ?????? 2007.
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. New York: Norton. pp. 13. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.
- ↑ Pringle, Heather (2 ??????? 2012), "Quest for Fire Began Earlier Than Thought", ScienceNOW, archived from the original on 15 ??????? 2013, retrieved 4 ??????? 2012
- ↑ Callaway, Ewen (2014). "Homo erectus made world's oldest doodle 500,000 years ago". Nature News (in ????????). doi:10.1038/nature.2014.16477.
- ↑ Brahic, Catherine (3 ???????? 2014). "Shell 'art' made 300,000 years before humans evolved". New Scientist. Retrieved 29 ?????????? 2018.
- ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 86.3 Joordens, Josephine C.A., et al. “Homo Erectus at Trinil on Java Used Shells for Tool Production and Engraving.” Nature, vol. 518, no. 7538, Feb. 2015, pp. 228–231.
- ↑ Dubois, E. Das geologische Alter der Kendeng-oder Trinil-fauna. Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen. 25, 1235–1270 (1908).
- ↑ Dubois, E. Pithecanthropus Erectus, Eine Menschena ¨hnliche U ¨bergangsformaus Java (Landesdruckerei, 1894).
- ↑ Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F. & Watts, I. "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa". J.Hum. Evol. 57, 27–47 (2009).
- ↑ d’Errico, F., Garc? ′aMoreno, R.& Rifkin, R.F. "Technological, elemental and colorimetric analysis of an engraved ochre fragment from the Middle Stone Age levels of Klasies River Cave 1, South Africa". J.Archaeol.Sci. 39, 942–952 (2012).
- ↑ "??????? ????". Archived from the original on 10 ?????? 2010. Retrieved 21 ?????? 2019.
- ↑ Ruhlen, Merritt (1994). The origin of language: tracing the evolution of the mother tongue. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-58426-1.
- ↑ Leakey, Richard (1992). Origins Reconsidered. Anchor. pp. 257–258. ISBN 978-0-385-41264-3.
- ↑ Boehm, Christopher (1999). Hierarchy in the forest: the evolution of egalitarian behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-674-39031-7.
- ↑ The paleontology institute at Heidelberg University, where the type specimen is kept since 1908, as late as 2010 still classified it as Homo erectus heidelbergensis. This was reportedly changed to Homo heidelbergensis, accepting the categorization as separate species, in 2015. "Homo heidelbergensis". Sammlung des Instituts für Geowissenschaften. Retrieved 29 ?????? 2015.
- ↑ long assumed to have lived on Java at least as late as about 50,000 years ago but re-dated in 2011 to a much older age.Finding showing human ancestor older than previously thought offers new insights into evolution, 5 July 2011.
- ↑ Ciochon RL. (2009). "The mystery ape of Pleistocene Asia. Nature. 459: 910–911. doi:10.1038/459910a.
- ↑ There was long-standing uncertainty whether H. floresiensis should be considered close to H. erectus, close to H. sapiens, or an altogether separate species. In 2017, it was suggested on morphological grounds that H. floresiensis is a sister species to either H. habilis or to a minimally habilis-erectus-ergaster-sapiens clade, and its line much more ancient than Homo erectus itself. Argue, Debbie; Groves, Colin P. (21 ??????? 2017). "The affinities of Homo floresiensis based on phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial characters". Journal of Human Evolution. 107: 107–133. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.006. PMID 28438318.
- ↑ Kenneth A.R. Kennedy Arun Sonakia John Chiment K.K. Verma, "Is the Narmada hominid an Indian Homo erectus?", American Journal of Physical Anthropology 86.4 (December 1991), 475–496, doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330860404.
- ↑ 100.0 100.1 100.2 Zanolli, Clément, et al. “Inner Tooth Morphology of Homo Erectus from Zhoukoudian. New Evidence from an Old Collection Housed at Uppsala University, Sweden.” Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 116, Mar. 2018, pp. 1–13.
- ↑ 101.0 101.1 Copes, Lynn E., and William H. Kimbel. “Cranial Vault Thickness in Primates: Homo Erectus Does Not Have Uniquely Thick Vault Bones.” Journal of Human Evolution, vol. 90, Jan. 2016, pp. 120–134.
- ↑ Delson E, Harvati K, Reddy D, et al. (??????? 2001). "The Sambungmacan 3 Homo erectus calvaria: a comparative morphometric and morphological analysis". The Anatomical Record. 262 (4): 380–397. doi:10.1002/ar.1048. PMID 11275970.
- ↑ Ciochon R, Long VT, Larick R, et al. (??????? 1996). "Dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus from Tham Khuyen Cave, Vietnam". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (7): 3016–3020. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.3016C. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.7.3016. PMC 39753. PMID 8610161.
- ↑ Schuster, Angela M.H. (??????????–???????? 1998). "New Skull from Eritrea". Archaeology. Retrieved 3 ???????? 2015.
- ↑ Kappelman J, Al?i?ek MC, Kazanci N, Schultz M, Ozkul M, Sen S (????? 2008). "First Homo erectus from Turkey and implications for migrations into temperate Eurasia". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 135 (1): 110–116. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20739. PMID 18067194.
Further reading
[??????]- Leakey, Richard; Walker, Alan (?????? 1985). "Homo Erectus Unearthed". National Geographic. Vol. 168, no. 5. pp. 624–629. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links
[??????]
- Homo erectus Origins – Exploring the Fossil Record – Bradshaw Foundation
- Archaeology Info
- Homo erectus – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
- Possible co-existence with Homo Habilis – BBC News
- John Hawks's discussion of the Kocabas fossil Archived 2025-08-08 at the Wayback Machine
- Peter Brown's Australian and Asian Palaeoanthropology
- The Age of Homo erectus Archived 2025-08-08 at the Wayback Machine – Interactive Map of the Journey of Homo erectus out of Africa
- Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
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